Many cathode materials that can support rapid and reversible insertion of lithium ions. Conversely, very few cathode materials can achieve reasonable charge storage capacities and cycling stability in secondary multivalent batteries. There are many practical challenges that limit widespread adoption of secondary multivalent batteries. For example, two such challenges include the design of electrolytes with large voltage stability windows with the appropriate interfacial stability that are able to solvate cation salts sufficiently, and the discovery and development of electrode materials that exhibit sufficient specific capacity at usable current densities. One prominent challenge facing Mg batteries is the sluggish insertion (extraction) kinetics of Mg2+ into (from) cathodes, which can result in in a high redox polarization effect, resulting in a lower than desired round-trip voltage efficiency.